Abstract

ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE IN THE ANTIBIOTIC ERA: EVOLUTION, MECHANISMS, MEASUREMENT, AND STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE CONTROL

Nagaraja Basappa Amblikoppa, Mr. Manjunath C. J., Lohith B., Aparna Lakshmi I., Dr. T. Shivaraj Gouda

Abstract

Antimicrobials, particularly antibiotics, have revolutionized modern medicine by significantly reducing mortality from infectious diseases and enabling complex medical procedures. However, their extensive and often inappropriate use in human health, veterinary practice, agriculture, and the environment has accelerated the global emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This review provides a comprehensive overview of antibiotic resistance, including its types, causes, mechanisms, and measurement methods. It also highlights the historical timeline of antibiotic discovery alongside the rapid development of resistance, underscoring the persistent evolutionary arms race between pathogens and antimicrobial agents. Furthermore, this review discusses preventive strategies, such as antimicrobial stewardship, infection control, one health surveillance, and global and national action plans.Recent advances in improving existing antibiotics, the development of novel antimicrobials, and the identification of new bacterial targets are also discussed. Collectively, this review emphasizes the urgent need for coordinated, multidisciplinary, and sustainable approaches to preserve antimicrobial efficacy and mitigate the growing threat of AMR.

Keywords: Antimicrobial resistance, Antibiotic Resistance, Global actions, One health surveillance, Precision antimicrobial stewardship.